National Westminster Bank Essay Example for Free

National Westminster Bank Essay Q1. Analyse the customer contact process during the account opening procedure. What aspects of the branchs operation impact on each stage? From analysing the branchs operation it is clear to see which parts of the banks operation impacts each stage of the account opening procedure. Firstly the customer arrives into the bank, usually customers go to the cashiers section, they are then referred over to the enquiries counter, where they are greeted by enquiry personnel who find out which of the banks service the customer requires. If the customer wishes to open a new account, a member of the records staff comes to administer the account opening procedure. It is the records staff who deals mostly with new customers. The records staff must to have a good basic knowledge of all the banks operations to be able to advise the new customer which account is best suited for them. They must find out if the customer wishes to invest money or if they wish to avail of the banks credit facilities. The records staff would not have an in depth knowledge of the investments available to new customers so more often than not a member of the investment section is called over to advise the new customer. Read more:Â  Bankers Draft Natwest For credit facilities, the new customer is referred to the lending section for processing, as this operation is outside the record section staff jurisdiction. Once they account type has been established, the formalities begin (processing of customer details). Records staff go through forms to ensure that all key information has been gathered. This is probably the longest part of the account opening procedure with the customer as a lot of details need to be processed. Once all the details have been gathered by the records staff, the direct customer contact finishes. Customer details are then passed onto the administrative section and the machine room to finalise the opening of a new account and the paper printing (cheque books, log books, ATM cards etc.) How the different operations interact upon the Records section: Q2. How would you improve the process? Once the bank identified their problems the set out an improvement plan. They key areas identified for improvement were identified: Signage Inexperienced Staff Limited staff for rush hours Uneven flow of walk-in customers at peak times From a recent survey customers identified the following problems: Account opening forms were not properly explained Banks standard account pack was not sent out to customers Some customers waited more than the standard 9 days to receive cheque book and bank card Customer personal details were recorded incorrectly Staff seemed uninterested in the customers needs Customers wouldnt recommend the bank to others All of the above points were taken into account in the banks improvement plan. Firstly the signage issue was tackled. This issue was clearly a problem when we visited the bank, see fig.1 It was evident from this, that the enquiries desk wasnt clearly noticeable or signposted. To eliminate the problem of new customers queuing at the cashiers desk (adding to queue delays in the bank) new signage was positioned around the bank clearly highlighting where the new customers were to go. While it was unfeasible to move staff permanently from section to section, records staff who are generally young and junior members of staff could be temporarily move around each of the banks operations. This would add to their training knowledge and enable them to give more specialised advice to customers. By doing this staff will get to know each others jobs, they will become more confident in their work, giving the sense of importance to the banks operation. This increases staff motivation which reduces boredom as boredom leads to mistakes. To assess the overall performance of staffs training and progress, the bank could introduce mystery shoppers, a member of staff from another of the banks branches comes to open an account, goes through the whole procedure and at the end evaluates the staffs performance, identifies areas for improvement etc. As it was, the cashiers would go for their lunch, and it was the job of the records section to cover the cashier positions during lunch. This however was the busiest period for new customers wishing to open accounts. During the lunchtime rush customers could feel they were been rushed, inevitably resulting in mistakes occurring. To deal with this issue, lunch time for the bank staff could be divided up more evenly. Only a set amount of cashiers go for lunch at any one time, these cashiers do not take their lunch until the first group comes back, this way there is always somebody covering the records section to deal with new potential customers if they arrive during the lunch time period. To ensure the records section were not over burdened by new customers during the lunch time period, a system of appointment only during the lunch time rush was set up. This way the records section could easily deal with walk-in customers in the mornings and afternoons, and during lunch time they knew how many customers to expect and spend the required time needed with each customer opening an account. This way the customer feels more at ease and the records section staff do not feel under pressure and rushed, reducing the amount of mistakes made. Customers felt that the account opening forms were not properly explained to them. This issue was tackled by more staff training and the mystery shopper also helped by giving feedback. This helps the junior staff in training to interpret the forms better and be much more capable of explaining the forms to customers. In terms of the banks standard account pack not been sent out to customers, the bank set up a system of having all the leaflets on hand so the member of staff dealing with the new customer could make up a package there and then to suit the customers needs. It was identified that some customers waited more than the standard 9 days to receive their cheque books or ATM cards. This waiting period was improved by a more clear line of communication set up between the records staff, administration staff and the machine room. This was also helped as now there were fewer mistakes and the records staff had more time to process the forms during the day as the by appointment only and not having to cover the cashier positions fully during lunch had clearly freed up some extra time for them. To deal with the problem of customers personal details not been recorded properly, the customer was asked to fill in a form which clearly legible showing how to spell their name address etc. Once all the forms had been filled out, it was advised that the supervisor provided an extra check on the forms before they were sent for processing. To assist with the implementation of this system a sort of a Kanban system could be set up, In-Kanban, Out-Kanban this way everything was fully completed before it was sent for processing, and there would be no mix ups, on what was processed and what has to be processed. Also as part of this kanban system to finalise the last step, approval by the manager must be signed on the form. The problem of the customers feeling rushed was solved when the records section were released from other duties such as fully covering the cashiers during lunch. If all of the above points are implemented successfully, the bank will be back on track to a successful and complimentary word of mouth.

The Link Between Job Satisfaction and Employee Productivity Essay

1) An Introduction Long gone are the days when Labor Relations or Manpower departments were all the HR that an organization needed for supplying its human resource management needs. As we have advanced from the Industrial Age to the Information Age and as the workplace and business scenario has become more complex and competitive, Human Resource Management has become a vital skill for any knowledge organization; one that, if used correctly, could become a key asset for an organization. One of the most crucial fields of study here, in the 20th century, has been the crucial link between job satisfaction and employee productivity. Job satisfaction essentially is a measure of how content an employee is with his current job. There are, broadly speaking, three major aspects to employee satisfaction at the workplace- 1. A degree of autonomy in decision making 2. Significantly challenging work that does not become monotonous 3. Link between job performance and advancement in organization Other intangible and tangible factors also come into play. For example, some organizations have amazing training programs for new hires that add significant market value to the candidate. Infosys, the Indian IT behemoth, has a rigorous training schedule of 6 months which is attested to by industry experts as being on of the best. Indeed, ex-Infy employees have always highlighted the importance of the training they had undergone at the famed Mysore campus near Bengaluru. Opportunities to be creative, flexible work arrangements, flexible benefits and job stability all contribute towards making an employee like his job and make that extra effort for the organization. 2) Studies and Theories Kick started by the Hawthorne studies (conduc... ...acebook-for-employee-satisfaction-for-the-first-time-in-four-years/. Last accessed 11th April 2012. 2. Jeffrey Pfeffer. (2009). Low Grades for Performance Reviews. Available: http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/09_31/b4141080608077.htm. Last accessed 11th April 2012. 3. Davi Ngo. (2009). Job Descriptive Index. Available: http://www.humanresources.hrvinet.com/job-descriptive-index-jdi/. Last accessed 11th April 2012. 4. Mark A. Griffin, Neal Andrew,Mathew Neale. (2000). The Contribution of Task Performance and Contextual Performance to Effectiveness: Investigating the Role of Situational Constraints . Applied Psychology: An International Review. 49 (3), 517-533 5. Ankur Jain. (2009). HRM - Nature, Scope and Objectives. Available: http://expertscolumn.com/content/human-resource-management-nature-scope-objectives-and-function. Last accessed 11th April 2012

African American Culture Essay

African American culture in the United States includes the various cultural traditions of African ethnic groups. It is both part of and distinct from American culture. The U. S. Census Bureau defines African Americans as â€Å"people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa. â€Å"[1] African American culture is indigenous to the descendants in the U. S. of survivors of the Middle Passage. It is rooted in Africa and is an amalgam of chiefly sub-Saharan African and Sahelean cultures. Although slavery greatly restricted the ability of Africans in America to practice their cultural traditions, many practices, values and beliefs survived and over time have incorporated elements of European American culture. There are even certain facets of African American culture that were brought into being or made more prominent as a result of slavery; an example of this is how drumming became used as a means of communication and establishing a community identity during that time. The result is a dynamic, creative culture that has had and continues to have a profound impact on mainstream American culture and on world culture as well. After Emancipation, these uniquely African American traditions continued to grow. They developed into distinctive traditions in music, art, literature, religion, food, holidays, amongst others. While for some time sociologists, such as Gunnar Myrdal and Patrick Moynihan, believed that African Americans had lost most cultural ties with Africa, anthropological field research by Melville Hersovits and others demonstrated that there is a continuum of African traditions among Africans in the New World from the West Indies to the United States. The greatest influence of African cultural practices on European cultures is found below the Mason-Dixon in the southeastern United States, especially in the Carolinas among the Gullah people and in Louisiana. African American culture often developed separately from mainstream American culture because of African Americans’ desire to practice their own traditions, as well as the persistence of racial segregation in America. Consequently African American culture has become a significant part of American culture and yet, at the same time, remains a distinct culture apart from it. History From the earliest days of slavery, slave owners sought to exercise control over their slaves by attempting to strip them of their African culture. The physical isolation and societal marginalization of African slaves and, later, of their free progeny, however, actually facilitated the retention of significant elements of traditional culture among Africans in the New World generally, and in the U. S. in particular. Slave owners deliberately tried to repress political organization in order to deal with the many slave rebellions that took place in the southern United States, Brazil, Haiti, and the Dutch Guyanas. African cultures,slavery,slave rebellions,and the civil rights movements(circa 1800s-160s)have shaped African American religious, familial, political and economic behaviors. The imprint of Africa is evident in myriad ways, in politics, economics, language, music, hairstyles, fashion, dance, religion and worldview, and food preparation methods. In the United States, the very legislation that was designed to strip slaves of culture and deny them education served in many ways to strengthen it. In turn, African American culture has had a pervasive, transformative impact on myriad elements of mainstream American culture, among them language, music, dance, religion, cuisine, and agriculture. This process of mutual creative exchange is called creolization. Over time, the culture of African slaves and their descendants has been ubiquitous in its impact on not only the dominant American culture, but on world culture as well. Oral tradition Slaveholders limited or prohibited education of enslaved African Americans because they believed it might lead to revolts or escape plans. Hence, African-based oral traditions became the primary means of preserving history, morals, and other cultural information among the people. This was consistent with the griot practices of oral history in many African and other cultures that did not rely on the written word. Many of these cultural elements have been passed from generation to generation through storytelling. The folktales provided African Americans the opportunity to inspire and educate one another. Examples of African American folktales include trickster tales of Br’er Rabbit and heroic tales such as that of John Henry. The Uncle Remus stories by Joel Chandler Harris helped to bring African American folk tales into mainstream adoption. Harris did not appreciate the complexity of the stories nor their potential for a lasting impact on society. Characteristics of the African American oral tradition present themselves in a number of forms. African American preachers tend to perform rather than simply speak. The emotion of the subject is carried through the speaker’s tone, volume, and movement, which tend to mirror the rising action, climax, and descending action of the sermon. Often song, dance, verse and structured pauses are placed throughout the sermon. Techniques such as call-and-response are used to bring the audience into the presentation. In direct contrast to recent tradition in other American and Western cultures, it is an acceptable and common audience reaction to interrupt and affirm the speaker. Spoken word is another example of how the African American oral tradition influences modern American popular culture. Spoken word artists employ the same techniques as African American preachers including movement, rhythm, and audience participation. Rap music from the 1980’s and beyond has been seen as an extension of oral culture. Harlem Renaissance [pic] Zora Neale Hurston was a prominent literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance. Main article: Harlem Renaissance The first major public recognition of African American culture occurred during the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1920s and 1930s, African American music, literature, and art gained wide notice. Authors such as Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen and poets such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen wrote works describing the African American experience. Jazz, swing, blues and other musical forms entered American popular music. African American artists such as William H. Johnson and Palmer Hayden created unique works of art featuring African Americans. The Harlem Renaissance was also a time of increased political involvement for African Americans. Among the notable African American political movements founded in the early 20th century are the United Negro Improvement Association and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. The Nation of Islam, a notable Islamic religious movement, also began in the early 1930s. African American cultural movement The Black Power movement of the 1960s and 1970s followed in the wake of the non-violent American Civil Rights Movement. The movement promoted racial pride and ethnic cohesion in contrast to the focus on integration of the Civil Rights Movement, and adopted a more militant posture in the face of racism. It also inspired a new renaissance in African American literary and artistic expression generally referred to as the African American or â€Å"Black Arts Movement. † The works of popular recording artists such as Nina Simone (Young, Gifted and Black) and The Impressions (Keep On Pushin’), as well as the poetry, fine arts and literature of the time, shaped and reflected the growing racial and political consciousness. Among the most prominent writers of the African American Arts Movement were poet Nikki Giovanni; poet and publisher Don L. Lee, who later became known as Haki Madhubuti; poet and playwright Leroi Jones, later known as Amiri Baraka; and Sonia Sanchez. Other influential writers were Ed Bullins, Dudley Randall, Mari Evans, June Jordan, Larry Neal and Ahmos Zu-Bolton. Another major aspect of the African American Arts Movement was the infusion of the African aesthetic, a return to a collective cultural sensibility and ethnic pride that was much in evidence during the Harlem Renaissance and in the celebration of Negritude among the artistic and literary circles in the U. S. , Caribbean and the African continent nearly four decades earlier: the idea that â€Å"black is beautiful. † During this time, there was a resurgence of interest in, and an embrace of, elements of African culture within African American culture that had been suppressed or devalued to conform to Eurocentric America. Natural hairstyles, such as the afro, and African clothing, such as the dashiki, gained popularity. More importantly, the African American aesthetic encouraged personal pride and political awareness among African Americans. Music [pic] Men playing the djembe, a traditional West African drum adopted into African American and American culture. The bags and the clothing of the man on the right are printed with traditional kente cloth patterns. African American music is rooted in the typically polyrhythmic music of the ethnic groups of Africa, specifically those in the Western, Sahelean, and Sub-Saharan regions. African oral traditions, nurtured in slavery, encouraged the use of music to pass on history, teach lessons, ease suffering, and relay messages. The African pedigree of African American music is evident in some common elements: call and response, syncopation, percussion, improvisation, swung notes, blue notes, the use of falsetto, melisma, and complex multi-part harmony. During slavery, Africans in America blended traditional European hymns with African elements to create spirituals. Many African Americans sing Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing in addition to the American national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner, or in lieu of it. Written by James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson in 1900 to be performed for the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, the song was, and continues to be, a popular way for African Americans to recall past struggles and express ethnic solidarity, faith and hope for the future. The song was adopted as the â€Å"Negro National Anthem† by the NAACP in 1919. African American children are taught the song at school, church or by their families. Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing traditionally is sung immediately following, or instead of, The Star-Spangled Banner at events hosted by African American churches, schools, and other organizations. In the 1800s, as the result of the blackface minstrel show, African American music entered mainstream American society. By the early twentieth century, several musical forms with origins in the African American community had transformed American popular music. Aided by the technological innovations of radio and phonograph records, ragtime, jazz, blues, and swing also became popular overseas, and the 1920s became known as the Jazz Age. The early 20th century also saw the creation of the first African American Broadway shows, films such as King Vidor’s Hallelujah!, and operas such as George Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess. Rock and roll, doo wop, soul, and R&B developed in the mid 20th century. These genres became very popular in white audiences and were influences for other genres such as surf. The dozens, an urban African American tradition of using rhyming slang to put down your enemies (or friends) developed through the smart-ass street jive of the early Seventies into a new form of music. In the South Bronx, the half speaking, half singing rhythmic street talk of ‘rapping’ grew into the hugely successful cultural force known as Hip Hop. Hip Hop would become a multicultural movement. However, it is still important to many African Americans. The African American Cultural Movement of the 1960s and 1970s also fueled the growth of funk and later hip-hop forms such as rap, hip house, new jack swing and go go. African American music has experienced far more widespread acceptance in American popular music in the 21st century than ever before. In addition to continuing to develop newer musical forms, modern artists have also started a rebirth of older genres in the form of genres such as neo soul and modern funk-inspired groups. Dance [pic]. The Cakewalk was the first African American dance to gain widespread popularity in the United States. [pic] African American dance, like other aspects of African American culture, finds its earliest roots in the dances of the hundreds of African ethnic groups that made up African slaves in the Americas as well as influences from European sources in the United States. Dance in the African tradition, and thus in the tradition of slaves, was a part of both every day life and special occasions. Many of these traditions such as get down, ring shouts, and other elements of African body language survive as elements of modern dance. In the 1800s, African American dance began to appear in minstrel shows. These shows often presented African Americans as caricatures for ridicule to large audiences. The first African American dance to become popular with White dancers was the cakewalk in 1891. Later dances to follow in this tradition include the Charleston, the Lindy Hop, and the Jitterbug. During the Harlem Renaissance, all African American Broadway shows such as Shuffle Along helped to establish and legitimize African American dancers. African American dance forms such as tap, a combination of African and European influences, gained widespread popularity thanks to dancers such as Bill Robinson and were used by leading White choreographers who often hired African American dancers. Contemporary African American dance is descended from these earlier forms and also draws influence from African and Caribbean dance forms. Groups such as the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater have continued to contribute to the growth of this form. Modern popular dance in America is also greatly influenced by African American dance. American popular dance has also drawn many influences from African American dance most notably in the hip hop genre. Art [pic] Sand Dunes at Sunset, Atlantic City by Henry Ossawa Tanner 1859-1937 From its early origins in slave communities, through the end of the twentieth century, African-American art has made a vital contribution to the art of the United States. During the period between the 1600s and the early 1800s, art took the form of small drums, quilts, wrought-iron figures and ceramic vessels in the southern United States. These artifacts have similarities with comparable crafts in West and Central Africa. In contrast, African American artisans like the New England–based engraver Scipio Moorhead and the Baltimore portrait painter Joshua Johnson created art that was conceived in a thoroughly western European fashion. During the 1800s, Harriet Powers made quilts in rural Georgia, United States that are now considered among the finest examples of nineteenth-century Southern quilting. Later in the 20th century, the women of Gee’s Bend developed a distinctive, bold, and sophisticated quilting style based on traditional African American quilts with a geometric simplicity that developed separately but was like that of Amish quilts and modern art. After the American Civil War, museums and galleries began more frequently to display the work of African American artists. Cultural expression in mainstream venues was still limited by the dominant European aesthetic and by racial prejudice. To increase the visibility of their work, many African American artists traveled to Europe where they had greater freedom. It was not until the Harlem Renaissance that more whites began to pay attention to African American art in America. [pic] Kara Walker, Cut, Cut paper and adhesive on wall, Brent Sikkema NYC. During the 1920s, artists such as Raymond Barthe, Aaron Douglas, Augusta Savage, and photographer James Van Der Zee became well known for their work. During the Great Depression, new opportunities arose for these and other African American artists under the WPA. In later years, other programs and institutions, such as the New York City-based Harmon Foundation, helped to foster African American artistic talent. Augusta Savage, Elizabeth Catlett, Lois Mailou Jones, Romare Bearden, Jacob Lawrence and others exhibited in museums and juried art shows, and built reputations and followings for themselves. In the 1950s and 1960s, there were very few widely accepted African American artists. Despite this, The Highwaymen, a loose association of 27 African American artists from Ft. Pierce, Florida, created idyllic, quickly realized images of the Florida landscape and peddled some 50,000 of them from the trunks of their cars. They sold their art directly to the public rather than through galleries and art agents, thus receiving the name â€Å"The Highwaymen†. Rediscovered in the mid-1990s, today they are recognized as an important part of American folk history. Their artwork is widely collected by enthusiasts and original pieces can easily fetch thousands of dollars in auctions and sales. The Black Arts Movement of the 1960s and 1970s was another period of resurgent interest in African American art. During this period, several African-American artists gained national prominence, among them Lou Stovall, Ed Love, Charles White, and Jeff Donaldson. Donaldson and a group of African-American artists formed the Afrocentric collective AFRICOBRA, which remains in existence today. The sculptor Martin Puryear, whose work has been acclaimed for years, is being honored with a 30-year retrospective of his work at the Museum of Modern Art in New York starting November 2007. Notable contemporary African American artists include David Hammons, Eugene J. Martin, Charles Tolliver, and Kara Walker. Literature [pic] Langston Hughes, a notable African American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. African American literature has its roots in the oral traditions of African slaves in America. The slaves used stories and fables in much the same way as they used music. These stories influenced the earliest African American writers and poets in the 18thcentury such as Phillis Wheatley and Olaudah Equiano. These authors reached early high points by telling slave narratives. During the early 20th century Harlem Renaissance, numerous authors and poets, such as Langston Hughes, W. E. B. Dubois, and Booker T. Washington, grappled with how to respond to discrimination in America. Authors during the Civil Rights era, such as Richard Wright, James Baldwin and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation, oppression and other aspects of African American life. This tradition continues today with authors who have been accepted as an integral part of American literature, with works such as Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley, The Color Purple by Alice Walker, and Beloved by Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, and series by Octavia Butler and Walter Mosley that have achieved both best-selling and/or award-winning status. Museums The African American Museum Movement emerged during the 1950s and 1960s to preserve the heritage of the African American experience and to ensure its proper interpretation in American history. Museums devoted to African American history are found in many African American neighborhoods. Institutions such as the African American Museum and Library at Oakland and The African American Museum in Cleveland were created by African Americans to teach and investigate cultural history that, until recent decades was primarily preserved trough oral traditions. Language Generations of hardships imposed on the African American community created distinctive language patterns. Slave owners often intentionally mixed people who spoke different African languages to discourage communication in any language other than English. This, combined with prohibitions against education, led to the development of pidgins, simplified mixtures of two or more languages that speakers of different languages could use to communicate. Examples of pidgins that became fully developed languages include Creole, common to Haiti,and Gullah, common to the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. African American Vernacular English is a type variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of the American English language closely associated with the speech of but not exclusive to African Americans. While AAVE is academically considered a legitimate dialect because of its logical structure, some of both Caucasians and African Americans consider it slang or the result of a poor command of Standard American English. Inner city African American children who are isolated by speaking only AAVE have more difficulty with standardized testing and, after school, moving to the mainstream world for work. It is common for many speakers of AAVE to code switch between AAVE and Standard American English depending on the setting. Fashion and aesthetics [pic]. A man weaving kente cloth in Ghana. Attire The cultural explosion of the 1960s saw the incorporation of surviving cultural dress with elements from modern fashion and West African traditional clothing to create a uniquely African American traditional style. Kente cloth is the best known African textile. These festive woven patterns, which exist in numerous varieties, were originally made by the Ashanti and Ewe peoples of Ghana and Togo. Kente fabric also appears in a number of Western style fashions ranging from casual t-shirts to formal bow ties and cummerbunds. Kente strips are often sewn into liturgical and academic robes or worn as stoles. Since the Black Arts Movement, traditional African clothing has been popular amongst African Americans for both formal and informal occasions. Another common aspect of fashion in African American culture involves the appropriate dress for worship in the Black church. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. An interpretation of a passage from the Christian Bible, â€Å"†¦every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head†¦ â€Å", has led to the tradition of wearing elaborate Sunday hats, sometimes known as â€Å"crowns. † Hair Hair styling in African American culture is greatly varied. African American hair is typically composed of tightly coiled curls. The predominant styles for women involve the straightening of the hair through the application of heat or chemical processes. These treatments form the base for the most commonly socially acceptable hairstyles in the United States. Alternatively, the predominant and most socially acceptable practice for men is to leave one’s hair natural. Often, as men age and begin to lose their hair, the hair is either closely cropped, or the head is shaved completely free of hair. However, since the 1960s, natural hairstyles, such as the afro, braids, and dreadlocks, have been growing in popularity. Although the association with radical political movements and their vast difference from mainstream Western hairstyles, the styles have not yet attained widespread social acceptance. Maintaining facial hair is more prevalent among African American men than in other male populations in the U. S. In fact, the soul patch is so named because African American men, particularly jazz musicians, popularized the style. The preference for facial hair among African American men is due partly to personal taste, but because they are more prone than other ethnic groups to develop a condition known as pseudofolliculitis barbae, commonly referred to as razor bumps, many prefer not to shave. Body image The European aesthetic and attendant mainstream concepts of beauty are often at odds with the African body form. Because of this, African American women often find themselves under pressure to conform to European standards of beauty. Still, there are individuals and groups who are working towards raising the standing of the African aesthetic among African Americans and internationally as well. This includes efforts toward promoting as models those with clearly defined African features; the mainstreaming of natural hairstyles; and, in women, fuller, more voluptuous body types. Religion While African Americans practice a number of religions, Protestant Christianity is by far the most popular. Additionally, 14% of Muslims in the United States and Canada are African American. Christianity [pic] A river baptism in New Bern, North Carolina near the turn of the 20th century. The religious institutions of African American Christians commonly are referred tocollectively as the black church. During slavery, many slaves were stripped of their African belief systems and typically denied free religious practice. Slaves managed, however, to hang on to some practices by integrating them into Christian worship in secret meetings. These practices, including dance, shouts, African rhythms, and enthusiastic singing, remain a large part of worship in the African American church. African American churches taught that all people were equal in God’s eyes and viewed the doctrine of obedience to one’s master taught in white churches as hypocritical. Instead the African American church focused on the message of equality and hopes for a better future. Before and after emancipation, racial segregation in America prompted the development of organized African American denominations. The first of these was the AME Church founded by Richard Allen in 1787. An African American church is not necessarily a separate denomination. Several predominantly African American churches exist as members of predominantly white denominations. African American churches have served to provide African American people with leadership positions and opportunities to organize that were denied in mainstream American society. Because of this, African American pastors became the bridge between the African American and European American communities and thus played a crucial role in the American Civil Rights Movement. Like many Christians, African American Christians sometimes participate in or attend a Christmas play. Black Nativity by Langston Hughes is a re-telling of the classic Nativity story with gospel music. Productions can be found a African American theaters and churches all over the country. Islam [pic] A member of the Nation of Islam selling merchandise on a city street corner. Despite the popular assumption that the Nation represents all or most African American Muslims, less than 2% are members. Generations before the advent of the Atlantic slave trade, Islam was a thriving religion in West Africa due to its peaceful introduction via the lucrative trans-Saharan trade between prominent tribes in the southern Sahara and the Berbers to the North. In his attesting to this fact the West African scholar Cheikh Anta Diop explained: â€Å"The primary reason for the success of Islam in Black Africa†¦consequently stems from the fact that it was propagated peacefully at first by solitary Arabo-Berber travelers to certain Black kings and notables, who then spread it about them to those under their jurisdiction† Many first-generation slaves were often able to retain their Muslim identity, their descendants were not. Slaves were either forcibly converted to Christianity as was the case in the Catholic lands or were besieged with gross inconviences to their religious practice such as in the case of the Protestant American mainland. In the decades after slavery and particularly during the depression era, Islam reemerged in the form of highly visible and sometimes controversial heterodox movements in the African American community. The first of these of note was the Moorish Science Temple of America, founded by Noble Drew Ali. Ali had a profound influence on Wallace Fard, who later founded the Black nationalist Nation of Islam in 1930. Elijah Muhammad became head of the organization in 1934. Much like Malcolm X, who left the Nation of Islam in 1964, many African American Muslims now follow traditional Islam. A survey by the Council on American-Islamic Relations shows that 30% of Sunni Mosque attendees are African Americans. African American orthodox Muslims are often the victims of stereotypes, most notably the assumption that an African American Muslim is a member of the Nation of Islam. They are often viewed by the uneducated African-American community in general as less authentic than Muslims from the Middle East or South Asia while credibility is less of an issue with immigrant Muslims and Muslim world in general. Other religions. Aside from Christianity and Islam, there are also African Americans who follow Judaism, Buddhism, and a number of other religions. The Black Hebrew Israelites are a collection of African American Jewish religious organizations. Among their varied teachings, they often include that African Americans are descended from the Biblical Hebrews (sometimes with the paradoxical claim that the Jewish people are not). There is a small but growing number of African Americans who participate in African traditional religions, such as Vodou and Santeria or Ifa and diasporic traditions like Rastafarianism. Many of them are immigrants or descendants of immigrants from the Caribbean and South America, where these are practiced. Because of religious practices, such as animal sacrifice, which are no longer common among American religions and are often legally prohibited, these groups may be viewed negatively and are sometimes the victims of harassment. Life events For most African Americans, the observance of life events follows the pattern of mainstream American culture. There are some traditions which are unique to African Americans. Some African Americans have created new rites of passage that are linked to African traditions. Pre-teen and teenage boys and girls take classes to prepare them for adulthood. They are typically taught spirituality, responsibility, and leadership. Most of these programs are modeled after traditional African ceremonies, with the focus largely on embracing African ideologies rather than specific rituals. To this day, some African American couples choose to â€Å"jump the broom† as a part of their wedding ceremony. Although the practice, which can be traced back to Ghana, fell out of favor in the African American community after the end of slavery, it has experienced a slight resurgence in recent years as some couples seek to reaffirm their African heritage. Funeral traditions tend to vary based on a number of factors, including religion and location, but there are a number of commonalities. Probably the most important part of death and dying in the African American culture is the gathering of family and friends. Either in the last days before death or shortly after death, typically any friends and family members that can be reached are notified. This gathering helps to provide spiritual and emotional support, as well as assistance in making decisions and accomplishing everyday tasks. The spirituality of death is very important in African American culture. A member of the clergy or members of the religious community, or both, are typically present with the family through the entire process. Death is often viewed as transitory rather than final. Many services are called homegoings, instead of funerals, based on the belief that the person is going home to the afterlife. The entire end of life process is generally treated as a celebration of life rather than a mourning of loss. This is most notably demonstrated in the New Orleans Jazz Funeral tradition where upbeat music, dancing, and food encourage those gathered to be happy and celebrate the homegoing of a beloved friend. Cuisine [pic] A traditional soul food dinner consisting of fried chicken, candied yams, collard greens, cornbread, and macaroni and cheese. The cultivation and use of many agricultural products in the United States, such as yams, peanuts, rice, okra, sorghum, grits, watermelon, indigo dyes, and cotton, can be traced to African influences. African American foods reflect creative responses to racial and economic oppression and poverty. Under slavery, African Americans were not allowed to eat better cuts of meat, and after emancipation many often were too poor to afford them. Soul food, a hearty cuisine commonly associated with African Americans in the South (but also common to African Americans nationwide), makes creative use of inexpensive products procured through farming and subsistence hunting and fishing.

Religious Terrorism - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 32 Words: 9578 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? RELIGIOUS TERRORISM IS THERE A LINK BETWEEN ISLAM AND TERRORISM Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. These acts shatter steel, but they cannot dent the steel of American resolve. George W. Bush Address to the US after hijack attacks on the US World Trade Centre and Pentagon, September 11, 2001 Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Religious Terrorism" essay for you Create order CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. When the terrorists attacked the United States on the morning of September 11, 2001, they set in motion a sequence of events that demonstrated unequivocally the power and influence ofterrorism. Less than two hours of unimaginable violence by nineteen terrorists led to repercussions felt around the world. Beyond the death and destruction that the terrorists caused more than 3,000 people were killed in the suicide attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. They also inflicted a deep psychological wound upon United States and the rest of the world.[1] 2. Although the United States had experienced major terrorist attacks on its soil in the past, including the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center and the 1995 bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, the September 11 attacks were beyond most peoples worst nightmare. Hijacked planes crashing into U.S. landmarks and live television coverage of the twin towers of the World Trade Center collapsing images that will likely be etched in ones mind forever. 3. The tragedy of September 11, 2001, has revealed the roots of deep planetary contradictions that threaten the world community and indeed life itself on planet Earth. This act of unprecedented terror against thousands of innocent people ought, at last, to start humanity thinking about the stark incompatibility of modern achievements in the areas of scientific knowledge, human rights, and the establishment of human moral standards with ideological, nationalistic, or religiousfanaticism in any form. 4. Lately, most of the terrorismseems to be about Islam, and it all seems to be the same. By all accounts the specter of jihadism looms large. Even if we suspend the belief for a moment and simply cast aside all those terrorist groups that clearly have nothing at all to do with the Islamic religionthe Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, the FARC in Colombia and the IRA in Ireland (to name but a few)we are still left with a slew of seemingly similar groups all motivated by and distorting Islam to suit their own ends[2]. The anatomy of propaganda 5. The document found in a suitcase belonging to leading September 11, 2001, terrorist Muhammed Atta further strengthens this belief. The suitcase document is reproduced below and analysed in the ensuing paragraph: Pray during the previous night. Remember God frequently and with complete serenity. Visualize how you will respond if you get into trouble. Read verses of the Quran into your hands and rub them over your luggage, knife, and all your papers. Check your weapons, perform ablution before you leave your apartment, and remember God constantly while riding to the airport. Take courage and remember the rewards which God has promised for the martyrs. [3] 6. The suitcase document is remarkable for four reasons. First, it embodies a classic ascetical strategy for applying formulaic principles to intended actions. Second, it shares much in common with repetitive techniques for self-hypnosis. Third, it bears a striking resemblance to mainstream traditions such as Catholicism in ascetical manuals like The Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius of Loyola or The Rule of St. Benedict that says, keep death daily before ones eyes. Whether or not such manuals threaten human freedom depends, of course, on the various contexts in which they have been presented. If in the wrong hands they can function as formulas and meditations both for indoctrination and for fighting holy wars. Fourth, the document from the suitcase directly connectsreligiousformulas and meditations with intentions to perpetrate mass murder. Practical checklists of objectives, terrifying in magnitude, are interwoven withreligiousstatements and then repeated and applied as mantras o f self-indoctrination. Religion The Terrorists Best Weapon 7. Whileterrorism even in the form of suicide attacks is not an Islamic phenomenon by definition, it cannot be ignored that the lions share of terrorist acts and the most devastating of them in recent years have been perpetrated in the name of Islam. This fact has sparked a fundamental debate both in the West and within the Muslim world regarding the link between these acts and the teachings of Islam. Most Western analysts are hesitant to identify such acts with the bona fide teachings of one of the worlds great religions and prefer to view them as a perversion of a religion that is essentially peace-loving and tolerant. Western leaders such as George W. Bush and Tony Blair have reiterated time and again that the war againstterrorismhas nothing to do with Islam. It is a war against evil[4]. 8. Modern International Islamistterrorismis a natural offshoot of twentieth-century Islamic fundamentalism. The Islamic Movement emerged in the Arab world and British-ruled India as a response to the dismal state of Muslim society in those countries: social injustice, rejection of traditional mores, acceptance of foreign domination and culture. It perceives the malaise of modern Muslim societies as having strayed from the straight path (as-sirat al-mustaqim) and the solution to all ills in a return to the original mores of Islam. The problems addressed may be social or political: inequality, corruption, and oppression. But in traditional Islamand certainly in the worldview of the Islamic fundamentalistthere is no separation between the political and thereligious. Islam is, in essence, both religion and regime (din wa-dawla) and no area of human activity is outside its remit. Be the nature of the problem as it may, Islam is the solution.[5] 9. The role of religion of Islam needs closer examination since the majority of terrorists of contemporary times are practising the religion of Islam. One of the enduring questions is what religion of Islam has to do with this. Put simply, does religion of Islam cause terrorism? Could these violent acts be the fault of religionthe result of a dark strain of religious thinking that leads to absolutism and violence? Is religion the problem or the victim? 10. When one looks outside ones faith it is easier to blame religion. In the current climate of Muslim political violence, a significant sector of the American and European public assumes that Islam is part of the problem. The implication of this point of view is the unfortunate notion that the whole of Islam has supported acts of terrorism. 11. Most Muslims refused to believe that fellow members of their faith could have been responsible for anything as atrocious as they September 11 attacksand hence the popular conspiracy theory in the Muslim world that somehow Israeli secret police had plotted the terrible deed. 12. Recently, however, Islam and fundamentalism are tied together so frequently in public conversation that the term has become a way of condemning all of Islam as a deviant branch of religion. But even in this case the use of the term fundamentalism allows for the defenders of other religions to take comfort in the notion that their kind of non-fundamentalist religion is exempt from violence or other extreme forms of public behaviour.[6] CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Statement of Problem 1. Terrorism has been a persistent feature of warfare and the international security environment for centuries. The magnitude and impact of terrorism has not remained consistent but rather has ebbed and flowed over the course of time. Today terrorism has emerged as one of the most significant international and regional security issues. 2. The terror attacks of Sep 11 have brought about a lasting change in the way contemporary society perceives the religion of Islam. The perception of the people all across the globe has been that Islam is source of violence. Scope 3. Islam is a vast religion and consists of various facets. The dissertation would aim to study the historical perspective of terrorism, conceptualise terrorism and then determine how religion is used as a motivator for terrorism before studying the Quranic interpretations associated with the violence and finally aim to answer the question Is there a link between Terrorism and Islam. 4. The scope does not cover the causes and motivators of terrorism like cultural conflict, globalisation, and economic disparity e.t.c. but is limited to investigate the general belief that Islam is associated with the terrorism. Methods of Data Collection 5. Data for this research has been collected from the following sources: (a) Books, journals, periodicals and studies on the subject. (b) Authenticated information from selected web sites. 6. A bibliography of the books, periodicals and web sites referred to is appended at the end of text. Organisation Of The Dissertation 7. Topic is intended to be dealt in the sequence enumerated below: (a) Introduction (b) Methodology (c) The Genesis of Terrorism A historical perspective. (d) Conceptualising terrorism Definitions. (e) How religion is used as a motivator for terrorism. (f) Interpretations of Quran and Terrorism. (g) Conclusion Is there a link between Islam and terrorism? CHAPTER III THE GENESIS OF TERRORISM A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Introduction 1. Terrorism is as old as the human civilization and the use of violence has been integral to the human beings in the entire process of evolution. This chapter aims at tracing the genesis of terrorism to arrive at the roots of contemporary terrorism. 1st -14th Century AD[7] 2. Zealots of Judea. The earliest known organization that exhibited aspects of a modern terrorist organization was the Zealots of Judea. Known to the Romans as sicarii, or dagger-men, they carried on an underground campaign of assassination of Roman occupation forces, as well as any Jews they felt had collaborated with the Romans. Eventually, the Zealot revolt became open, and they were finally besieged and committed mass suicide at Masada fortress. 3. The Assassins. The Assassins were the next group to show recognisable characteristics of terrorism, as we know it today. A breakaway faction of Shia Islam called the Nizari Ismalis adopted the tactic of assassination of enemy leaders because the cults limited manpower prevented open combat. Their leader, Hassam-I Sabbah, based the cult in the mountains of Northern Iran. Their tactic of sending a lone assassin to successfully kill a key enemy leader at the certain sacrifice of his own life (the killers waited next to their victims to be killed or captured) inspired fearful awe in their enemies. 4. The Zealots of Judea and the Assassins were forerunners of modern terrorists in aspects of motivation, organisation, targeting, and goals. Although both were ultimate failures, the fact that they are remembered hundreds of years later, demonstrates the deep psychological impact they caused. 14th -18th Century 5. The period between 14th and 18th century was of relative calm. From the time of the Assassins (late 13th century) to the1700s, terror and barbarism were widely used in warfare and conflict, but key ingredients for terrorism were lacking. Until the rise of the modern nation state after the Treaty of Westphalia[8] in 1648, the sort of central authority and cohesive society that terrorism attempts to influence barely existed. 6. Communications were inadequate and controlled, and the causes that might inspire terrorism (religious schism, insurrection, ethnic strife) typically led to open warfare. By the time kingdoms and principalities became nations, they had sufficient means to enforce their authority and suppress activities such as terrorism. 7. The French Revolution. The French Revolution provided the first uses of the words Terrorist and Terrorism. Use of the word terrorism began in 1795 in reference to the Reign of Terror initiated by the Revolutionary government. The agents of the Committee of Public Safety and the National Convention that enforced the policies of The Terror were referred to as Terrorists. The French Revolution provided an example to future states in oppressing their populations. It also inspired a reaction by royalists and other opponents of the Revolution who employed terrorist tactics such as assassination and intimidation in resistance to the Revolutionary agents. The Parisian mobs played a critical role at key points before, during, and after the Revolution. Such extra-legal activities as killing prominent officials and aristocrats in gruesome spectacles started long before the guillotine was first used. The 19th Century 8. Narodnya Volya. The terrorist group from this period that serves as a model in many ways for what was to come was the Russian Narodnya Volya (Peoples Will). They differed in some ways from modern terrorists, especially in that they would sometimes call off attacks that might endanger individuals other than their intended target. Other than this, they showed many of the traits of terrorism for the first time. These traits included clandestine tactics, cellular organisation, impatience and inability for the task of organising the constituents they claim to represent and a tendency to increase the level of violence as pressures on the group mount. Internationalisation of Terrorism 9. Modern Terrorism. The age of modern terrorism might be said to have begun in 1968 when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked an El Al airliner en route from Tel Aviv to Rome. While hijackings of airliners had occurred before, this was the first time that the nationality of the carrier (Israeli) and its symbolic value was a specific operational aim. Also a first was the deliberate use of the passengers as hostages for demands made publicly against the Israeli government. The combination of these unique events, added to the international scope of the operation, gained significant media attention. The founder of PFLP, Dr. George Habash observed that the level of coverage was tremendously greater than battles with Israeli soldiers in their previous area of operations. At least the world is talking about us now.[9] 10. Cooperation. Another aspect of this internationalisation is the cooperation between extremist organizations in conducting terrorist operations. Cooperative training between Palestinian groups and European radicals started as early as 1970, and joint operations between the PFLP and the Japanese Red Army (JRA) began in 1974. Since then international terrorist cooperation in training, operations, and support has continued to grow, and continues to this day. Motives range from the ideological, such as the 1980s alliance of the Western European Marxist-oriented groups, to financial, as when the IRA exported its expertise in bomb making as far afield as Colombia[10]. Current State of Terrorism 11. The roots of todays terrorism began to grow in 1990s. The largest act of international terrorism occurred on September 11, 2001 in set of coordinated attacks on the United States of America where Islamic terrorists hijacked civilian airliners and used them to attack the World Trade Center towers in New York City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC. After September 11, it is very easy to be nostalgic about the 1990s. In fact, the post Cold War decade was a very chaotic period. Americans were absorbed by domestic issues and lulled by the fact that the Cold War was over[11]. Summary 12. There were two great forces at work through the 1990s. First, there were the forces of integration, including global economic growth, cross-border development, the communications revolution and the spreading of democracy. The power of these forces was captured in the popular phrase, The End of History. Thats what seemed to be happening after the fall of the Berlin Wall and all of the other great events that were affecting world history. But there was also a second set of equally powerful forcesthe forces of disintegrationincluding religious and ethnic conflict, an ever-widening North-South gap, religious fundamentalism (Islamic and otherwise) and terrorism. The power of these forces was captured in the phrase, the Clash of Civilizations. While I disagree with the ultimate conclusion of Samuel Huntington, the author of that phrase, that the clash is inevitable, Huntingtons words nonetheless capture the import of the forces that were producing post-Cold War conflicts CHAPTER IV CONCEPTUALISING TERRORISM 1. A few terms that are important to the study of violence in Islam are: terrorism, religious terrorism and Islamic terrorism. A discussion of these terms will permit a comprehensive analysis on the way in which the use of violence sanctioned by the Quran and its interpretations amounts to Islamic terrorism. Terrorism 2. Terrorism is a non-political act of aggression in which the extent of violence used is outside the realm of normative behavior[12]. Terrorists use or threaten to use this violence against combatants and non-combatants to achieve political, social, economical or religious change within a given community. These reforms appeal to the terrorists and do not represent popular opinion of the society from which terrorism arises and terrorists are no respecters of borders[13]. 3. Thus Omar Abdullah, the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir says that there are no well defined or internationally accepted criteria to designate an organization as terrorist. However the UN Security Council has, on occasion, adopted resolutions putting in place specific sanctions and measures against individual countries orcertain terrorist organizations[14]. 4. According to Kofi Annan the Ex Secretary General of the United Nations, the manifestations of terrorism are limitless. The only common denominator among different variants of terrorism is the calculated use of deadly violence against civilians[15]. 5. Terrorists are those who violate the right to life, liberty and security[16] vested in each civilian by the UNs Universal Declaration of Human Rights Resolution: 217 A (III). Thus the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) of the United Kingdom defines terrorism as a movement in which terrorists directly challenge the authority of democratically elected governments to manage their countrys affairs peacefully, according to the rule of law and internationally accepted fundamentals of human rights[17], to satisfy their own liking. Religious Terrorism 6. Religious terrorism occurs when the use of terrorism is systematized by an ideological and fanatical interpretation of a religious text. Religious terrorist groups functioning in the absence of this pretext, create junk terrorism[18]. 7. According to Charles Kimball, religious terrorism functions on the basis of five essential principles. These are: means justify the end, holy war, blind obedience, absolute truth claims and the ideal times. Kimball explains that truth claims are essential points in a religion at which divergent interpretations arise[19]. Extreme interpretations of truth claims provoke the ideology upon which religious terrorism is based. However the authentic religious truth claims are never as inflexible and exclusive as zealous adherents insist[20]. The staunch truth claims professed by religious terrorists, allow them to use religious structures and doctrinesalmost like weapons[21] for their movement. 8. In the process, religious convictions that become locked into absolute truths can easily lead people to see themselves as Gods agents. People so emboldened are capable of violent and destructive behaviour in the name of religion[22]. This conviction creates fanatical interpretations and ideologies that give rise to religious terrorism. Nancy Connors Biggos[23], states that foreign observers are unfamiliar with the extreme interpretations of religious terrorists. Thus scholars often dismiss the rhetoric of religious terrorism as one that is devoid of any strategic motivation. This creates a dearth of quantifiable data that can be used to assess religious terrorism. However Biggo explains that the lack of understanding or data cannot dismiss the fact that religious terrorism is systematized by extreme interpretations of a religious text. Therefore Wener Ruf, states, where God was pronounced dead all notions of morality have been turned into nihilism[24]. Islamic Terrorism 9. Islamic terrorism is a movement in which the violence caused by terrorism is derived from and used to preserve extreme interpretations of the Quran, in an Islamic community. An in-depth discussion of the how Islamic terrorism is invoked from the Quran, will be discussed in a separate chapter. However, preliminarily speaking Islamic terrorism exists where there is a controversy over sacred space[25]or a Kuranic tenet has been violated. Participants of this movement call for unquestioned devotion and blind obedience[26] to the word of God in order to ameliorate un-Islamic conditions. 9. Islamic terrorism is itself a controversial phrase, although its usage is widespread throughout the English-speaking world. Ordinary Muslims who have nothing to do with terrorism find it reprehensible because it forces upon them a label simply because they, too, are believers of Islam. In fact, the common Muslim believes that you are making him a racial hate target by using the word Islam with terrorism. Bernard Lewisbelieves that the phrase Islamic terrorism is apt, because although Islam, as a religion is not particularly conducive to terrorism or even tolerant of terrorism. In his own words: Islam has had an essentially political character from its very foundation to the present day. An intimate association between religion and politics, between power and cult, marks a principal distinction between Islam and other religions. In traditional Islam and therefore also in resurgent fundamentalist Islam, God is the sole source of sovereignty. God is the head of the state. The state is Gods state. The army is Gods army. The treasury is Gods treasury, and the enemy, of course, is Gods enemy. CHAPTER V RELIGION AS A MOTIVATOR FOR TERRORISM One mans terrorist is another mans freedom fighter.[27] 1. Introduction. The dynamics whereby religion becomes a motivator for terrorism is complex but highly understandable. What terrorists groups using this dynamic have begun to understand is that most ordinary citizens are not highly interested in politics nor dedicated to working for social change. Many ordinary citizens are however interested in religion as it relates to their personal lives and morals and because of this they can be emotionally manipulated when they learn of social injustices particularly if they view them through the lens of religious rhetoric. This is specifically true in todays world of instantaneous news coverage where it is possible to whip up political and religious outrage over events that are seen to be bordering on religious threshold. This is certainly true in the case of al Qaeda and its loosely affiliated groups within what is now commonly referred to as the global salafi jihadist movement[28]. 2. Religious Brainwash. Following the Afghan war in which Islamic peoples from many nations came together to successfully throw out the Russian infidel, Osama bin Laden and similar groups have successfully managed to continue to widen their global appeal by showcasing social injustices against Muslims. This helps to create within a wide group of otherwise less connected Muslim ethnic groups identification with the victims and with each other as a caring and responsive community for their Muslim brothers. Typically, these groups make use of the human rights abuses occurring within the Israeli/Palestinian and Russian/Chechen conflicts and now also include the occupations in Iraq and Afghanistan. 3. The making of a Terrorist. While instantaneous and repetitive satellite coverage of worldwide events is enough to show injustices and to even create identification with victims sharing similar ethnic or religious backgrounds it is not sufficiently enough to fuel terrorism. However, with the addition of religious rhetoric it is transformed into a potent mix. This transformation is achieved via the following means:- (a) Great Moral Wrong. First the event is presented as a great moral wrong, a threat to religious morality or purity and as one that must be corrected. The message, which is crafted for unhappy persons, social outcasts or those who are already suffering from religious guilt, is framed as one of good and evil and the listener is admonished to be on the side of good. (b) Mind of God. The second tactic in which religion is used to motivate terrorism is convincing the person that it is possible to know the mind of God. For this purpose scriptures are used, and misused, to clearly identify the social wrongs as evil, immoral or impure. Once identified as threats to morality, this tactic is used to take it a step further with additional scriptures that are used to justify violence in order to destroy the evil. In this way religion is co-opted as the means to morally justify violence in the pursuit of social change. While the world debated about the first strike in the Iraq War (to be carried out by the U.S., Great Britain and their coalition forces), moralists all over the world debated about the doctrine of just wars, thereby holding forth about the mind of God on these matters. (c) Overcoming Guilt. Thirdly, because nearly all religions hold human life as sacred and forbid murder the scriptures are used to break down these prohibitions against taking innocent human lives. Islamic rhetoric for example refers to the infidels, nonbelievers, defiled, impure, outsiders, and sinners. In this manner the intended terrorist act in ways that take innocent human lives without suffering guilt for having done so. (d) Common Cause Fourthly, by using religion as a motivator the terrorist group creates a sense of cohesion and belonging to a higher cause. They prey upon individuals who are alienated and disenfranchised. When these individuals find a cause to belong to, especially when it espouses religious rhetoric of brotherhood, love and hope for the future life they can become powerfully motivated to act in behalf of the group simply for the sense of identity.[29] (e) Heroic Martyrdom. The One of the ultimate uses of religion to motivate terrorism is to hold forth a view of the afterlife, promising rewards in the hereafter for sacrificing oneself in the here and now. This is a particularly potent tactic used with those who feel guilty about their actions in this life and uncertain of their standing with God, and with those marginal members of society who suddenly find themselves centered in a group with a purpose. The Muslim interpretation of afterlife while dying for jihad states that the Prophet will be waiting to welcome the martyr with thousands of virgins lined up for his pleasure. Referring to afterlife one martyr also states, I will have God welcome me with open arms. I will be a true hero in the sky.[30] 4. Between the two recent wars in Chechnya (1994-96 and 1999) similar means were used to convince vulnerable Chechen individuals to sign on the new Chechen jihad which began making use of suicide terrorism in 2000. During this time period terrorist sponsored schools used were opened in the capital Grozny which recruited young boys and girls who lost their fathers in the Russian/Chechen conflicts promising their widowed mothers a good education for their sons and daughters. Unknown to their families these vulnerable young students were indoctrinated into militant Islamic ideas foreign to Chechen experiences of Sufi Islam and some became convinced that the price of belonging to higher glory is to be willing to sacrifice oneself for the group. In the words of a hostage who conversed with one of the Chechen terrorists :- He explained to me that while his greatest dream was to continue his education and go to university and that while he wished to live, even more important for him was to die a martyr. He had become totally convinced that martyrdom was his highest calling in life.[31] 5. Conclusion. Religion has always been used as a means of constructing social justice, expiating wrongdoing or sins, and of modulating emotional states. These means however can also be used to manipulate vulnerable individuals into taking social actions that they might otherwise never have considered or consented to take part in. For instance a colleague in Chechnya reports that the children who attended terrorist based schools were taught to rock and chant repeating Koranic verses that invoke jihad, ideas that their masters consider important to instil. This practice can easily make use of inducing a suggestive hypnotic state; a light trance in which susceptible children who have already reason to want to avenge a murdered parent might be induced to do so. People interacting with such persons mentioned that these young terrorists were brainwashed, rocking, singing and praying often, and readily embracing death.[32] CHAPTER VI QURANIC INTERPRETATIONS AND TERRORISM 1. Approximately fourteen hundred years ago, Prophet Muhammad, the last in the line of the prophets of Islam, received revelation from God known as the Quran, which is the Final Testament. He came with a message of peace and reconciliation, mercy and compassion. Yet, ever since the beginning of the call of Islam, its image and that of Muslims has been subject to distortion, misconceptions, and misinterpretations. This chapter aims at establishing the link between Quran and the distortions in its interpretation which has manifested itself in the form of jihad or the holy-war. Quran and Sanction of Violence 2. The Quran permits violence as an act of defence waged to protect the Shariat in an Islamic community. The Shariat can be explained as a system of ordinances outlined in the Quran and Hadis[33] through which God lays down for mankind the rules of conduct[34]. The Shariat is the guidance for all walks of life individual and social, material and moral, economic and political, legal and cultural, national and international[35]. 3. Muslims are advised to closely follow the Shariat to acquire the well being that God has envisioned for the Islamic community. Preservation of the Shariat is an obligation of every able-bodied individual[36]. Oppression, despotism, injustice and criminal abuse of power[37] of the Shariat by Muslims or non-Muslims[38], must be punished. Quran and Jihad 4. The Quran identifies three main kinds of Jihad that can be used for the punishment of oppression and injustice. These are: internal[39], external[40] and inter-communal[41]. The Quran permits the use of violence as an optional method for all three forms of Jihad but it limits the use of violence in internal[42] and external Jihad. It expands on its doctrine of Jihad and violence, mainly in the context of inter-communal conflicts. In these cases, Muslims can individually determine the nature and extent of Jihad based on the freedom of interpretations, and the geopolitical conditions in which the conflict arises. However the most essential prerequisite in the Qurans discourse on violence is that, force should be used only when the Shariat has been violated and needs to be persevered as the very work of God Himself'[43]. 5. In Inter communal Jihad, Martial Jihad[44] should be used to protect and to promote the integrity of Islam and to defend the umma [community] against hostile unbelievers whether they are invading armies or un-Islamic internal despots[45]. The use of forces in all other instances is forbidden by God[46]. Once cause for violent Jihad has been established on the basis of geopolitical circumstances and religious understandings of the same, the Quran advises Muslims to:- Fight for the sake of God those that fight against you but do not attack them first. God does not love aggressors. Slay them wherever you find them[47]. It encourages violent Jihadis to muster all the men and cavalry at your disposal [and]strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies[48]until Gods religion[49] reigns supreme[50]. Jihadis should use violence to ward of external aggression, maintain internal orde and establish absolute justice for all citizens[51]. Jihadis should employ all means and media for the establishment of all that is right and the elimination of all that is wrong'[52]. If they do so then they will dwell amidst garden and fountains and shall receive what their Lord will give themfor they have done good works[53]. 6. Thus as seen above, through its affirmative discourse on the use of violence and its association with the Divine and martyrdom, the Quran encourages the popularity of violent Jihad as a legitimate tool for Muslims to overpower their adversaries. Through this association the Quran also projects the use of violence as a religious duty that demonstrates the utmost submission to God and deserves the highest rewards. This becomes more compelling because the Quran permits violence, in any instance where the Shariat has been violated. 7. A Muslim who foresees this violation as important is allowed by the Quran to adopt violent Jihad. The manner in which this process applies to each Muslim depends on individual interpretations of the Quran which extend themselves to the social realm as well. If adopted on the basis of individual will and sense of religious duty, then violent Jihad can be considered as an act of great patriotism in Islam. Conversely an act of violence that is not directed towards preserving the Shariat and the will of God is categorized as terrorism in Islam. Such acts are a deviation from the path of God and the Quran states that those that deny Gods revelations shall be sternly punished; God is mighty and capable of revenge. Nothing on earth or in heaven is hidden from God[54]. The Quran is extremely categorical in outlining the premise and course for Islamic violence so that it can deter nonreligious violence from occurring. 8. Quran implies that Muslims can apply their Quranic understandings to geopolitical conditions and present religious premise for violent Jihad. Once this is done, the intent and act of violence meets Quranic requirements consequently making violent Jihad a legitimate religious reaction. Most often, acts categorized as terrorism in the non-Muslim world represent religious rather than non-religious violence executed within the Qurans discourse on violence. This is because the non-Muslim worlds categorization of violence is not related to the Quran. In the non-Muslim world, the use of legitimate violence is defined as a state-oriented concept which must find just cause in domestic or international precepts.[55] However, in the Islamic world the Quran itself determines political, economic and social perceptions. 9. Violence in Islamic nations almost always has an essential religious rather than a purely political bias. The Quran states that any Muslim can be a warrior of God rather than the state based on his religious interpretations. The extent to which violence can be used in Islam for this purpose remains unstipulated by the Quran. It simply states that Jihadis should engage all means required to ensure that the enemy is defeated or accepts defeat. Thus even though violent Jihad can create aggression that amounts to terrorism in the non-Muslim world, in Islam this is not perceived as such as long as it occurs within the guidelines on the use of violence, stipulated in the Quran. Contrary perceptions of violent Jihad persist in the non-Muslim world mainly because of the divergent perspectives from which the use of violence is defined. 10. Bin-Laden and some other extremists in the Islamic world contend that the 11 September 2001 attacks were a reaction to the hegemonic status that the United States (US) has established in the Middle-East, especially after the Afghan-Soviet War. This had political and economic implications that often violate the Shariat on governance and trade. These Muslims oppose power-politics played by the US in countries such as Iraq, Iran and Libya. They contend that these politics mainly further US economic interests in the Middle-East. The Quran states that Islamic resources should be used mainly for Islamic benefits and can be exchanged with non-Muslims through negotiations and agreements. However, it strongly condemns unsolicited involvement of non-Muslims in Muslim affairs. Thus, some Muslims also emphasize US oil-trade in the Middle East from this perspective. They also condemn power hungry leaders in the Islamic world who facilitate such economics and politics and prevent the downward filtration effects of these engagements, as recommended by the Quran. Thus, Bin-Laden and these Muslims believe that, despite their intensity, the 11 September 2001 attacks were a legitimate Quranic reaction to preserve the sanctity of Islamic values in the Middle East. 11. Extreme interpretations of the Qurans discourse on violence would legitimize this belief. Contrarily, perceptions of state oriented violence and war in the non-Muslim world would reject it. However, it is important to remember that in Islam, extreme as they maybe, acts of violence are legitimized by the Quran, as long as they are enacted to reserve the Shariat and executed within its discourse on violence. Role of Quranic Interpretations in Justifying and Integrating Terrorism 12. Even though the various terrorists groups intone various ideologies of the Islamic religion, there are no set universal agendas for these groups. In the contemporary world the goal for groups like Hamas, Palestinian Islamic Jihad and the Chechen rebels is a nation of their own with tactics reminiscent of the ethnic violence erupting after abandoned colonialism. On the other end of the spectrum are groups like Jemaah Islamiya (JI) and Al-Qaeda with its various offshoots, who indeed are looking to rearrange the global order, instigate the now-infamous clash of civilizations and create a Muslim caliphate that spans continents, all the while bringing the West to its knees. Their goals are vast and global. Somewhere in the middle of all this are groups at risk, Lashkar-e-Taiba (LET) in Pakistan and the separatist movements in the Philippines and Thailand. These groups are primarily motivated by state-centric goals, but all rest on the cusp of pan-territorial and far more dangerous age ndas. Terrorist groups can largely be conceived as having two working parts: an identity and an ideology. When it comes to Islamicterrorism, that identity is based in religion, but sometimes the ideology is based in nationalism, while at other times in a more transient, pan-territorial agenda. This difference is most stark between more traditional ethno-terrorist movements and the far more globally oriented groups like Al-Qaeda[56]. 13. Since nationalist movements are focused on creating a state or political freedoms for one group, their strategies are focused on the nation-state from which they hope to gain concessions. Their violence is directed at those inside the state. Whether or not Islam provides the identity, their goals are not apocalyptic. In contrast,religiousterrorist groups like Al-Qaeda engage in almost no domestic targeting. Their goals cross continents. They want to destroy corrupt regimes in the Middle East, South and Southeast Asia, purge the Western presence in their lands and change the global power order[57]. 14. After having seen how the terrorists interpret the Quran in justifying their actions, we can surmise that the popularity of this kind of radical reaction in the Muslim world can be explained as areligiouscounter reaction to the rapid progress of modernization, which has often included a move away from traditionalreligiousbeliefs in societies. In some parts of the less-developed world, fundamentalists are counterattacking against the perceived threats to their societies posed by secularism and modernity, and some are blaming their societies failures on the godless West. Political Islam calls for a renewal of Islamic values in the personal and public life of Muslims. Its manifestations include strictreligiousobservances, the rapid growth ofreligiouspublications and readings from the Koran on radio and in television programming, and demands for the implementation of Islamic law. Political Islam often includes growing numbers of Islamic schools, organizations, and activist movements and expressions of resentment against the Western world for exporting a secular Coca-Cola culture to the Islamic world[58]. Throughout the Arab world, Muslim militants and terrorists are often recruited from the legions of unemployed and dispirited young men in both urban and rural settings in seriously underdeveloped countries. In many nations in the Middle East, there is never a shortage of those who are willing to find attractive the idea of launching a holy war against the enemy. CHAPTER VII CONCLUSION With or without religion, you would have good people doing good things and evil people doing evil things. But for good people to do evil things that takes religion. Nobel Prize winner Steven Weinberg 1. At first glance, the link between religious extremism and terrorism seems obvious. Religious extremists are willing to murder because they embrace theologies that sanction violence in the service of God. They have no sympathy for their victims, because they view those victims as enemies of God. And they readily sacrifice their own lives because they expect huge and immediate afterlife rewards in return for martyrdom. 2. But upon closer examination, theological explanations raise more questions than they answer. If theology is so important, why are most terrorist organizations not religious? And if after life rewards is the key, then why has a nonreligious group the LTTE Tamil Tigers been responsible for more suicide attacks than any other organization? Why is suicide bombing associated with all sorts of theologies but just one style of religious organization (best described as sectarian)? And why do most militant sects devote much of their energy to benign and noble activities, such as running schools, health clinics, and social services agencies? 3. Blaming the texts themselves is useless as long as they are held sacred by large groups of people. It is wiser to look for the reasons the texts are used and the reasons that they appeal to wide segments of society as well as to individuals who join in support of terrorism. 4. However as long as real injustices exists that terrorist groups can use to ignite religious passion for their cause we are in danger of battling terrorists rather than addressing root causes. Unless we begin to understand and address the concerns of the new religious terrorist, we will find the consequences of our inaction like the numb shock of 9-11, simply overwhelming. 5. The presence of charismatic ideological leaders able to transform widespread grievances and frustrations into a political agenda for violent struggle is a decisive factor behind the emergence of a terrorist movement 6. Terrorists very frequently claim religious mission as their holy motivation. The most common teaching referred to legitimate terrorism and violence is jihad. In the Quran, the word jihad is mentioned more than 30 times. It is an important teaching of Islam and one of indicators for the quality and degree of faith. In this sense, there are possible relationships between religion, radicalism and terrorism. 7. The radicals argue that Islam and Muslims are under threat. Munkarat (evildoers) are everywhere. It is the time for Muslims to wage a war against enemies of Islam. For them, the West is evil that cause all damages for Islam. Whereas the moderates believe that Islam is not the only religion of God. They view religions other than Islam such as Christian and Jewish are equally true. This does mean however that the moderates believe in syncretism. They believe in Islam but they also believe that there are shared- truth among religions. Due to this, the moderates are mostly tolerance to other religions or faiths. The moderates have a contextual or progressive understanding of Islam and very positive toward modernity. For them violence is strictly permitted in a very measurable manner and they view that Islam is not under threat. 8. There are challenges that Islam has to deal with. But, these challenges are not exclusively caused by the West. To some extents, they might be deep rooted from Muslims themselves. In brief, terrorism has no direct relations with Islam as a religion. Terrorism is driven by Muslims understanding of Islam and their perception of the West and modernity in the global contexts. It is this understanding and perception that determine the extent of terrorism. 9. Terrorism is not exclusively related to Muslims and the Muslim world. While terrorism is more visually pronounced among the Muslims, it is also evident among followers of other faiths, including Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Religious radicalism or fundamentalism is by no means limited to Muslims. Across history, terrorism in form of killings, kidnappings, suicide bombings and other kind of violence are performed by adherents of religions other than Islam such as Hindu, Buddha, Christian, Jewish and so on. 10. It is true that the deadliest terrorist strikes to date, the September 11 attacks (2001), was said to be done by suicide terrorist associated with al-Qaeda, and other striking terrorist strikes were said to be also carried out by Muslims, but this should not hide the fact that this phenomenon is not only related to the Muslim world. 11. Terrorism, therefore, might be a universal phenomenon. It develops not only within specific religious groups but also non-religious groups as well. Terrorism is carried out as a means of political war or bargaining to gain an independent or political autonomy. In line with this, radicalism also develops as a form of solidarity of the oppressed. For example, the invasion of US allies troops to Iraq, trigger not only a global demonstration among Muslim across the globe but also among non-Muslim people who are against USA. Anti-Americanism is on the increases in many part of the world, especially among Muslims. USA and West government policies that hardly condemn Israel are indicators of their back up to the Zionism, a religious movement against by majority Muslims. 12. Economic insecurity might also relate to radicalism and terrorism. A widening economic gap between the developed and developing countries is a fertile ground of terrorism. There is perception prolongation of poverty in developing countries is caused by so-called neo-colonialism. Hegemony of rich countries to dictate and somehow exploit natural resources of the developing countries also creates economic radicalism. 13. In the future, therefore, radicalism and terrorism remain a challenge. If countries unable to create a more secure and safer world, radicalism tends to increase and brought about unpredictable terrorism. In this sense, it is important to rethink the use of military power to fight against terrorism. The use of military forces might be effective to reduce terrorism from its external factors and for temporary time. It might be valuable if fighting against terrorism more emphasize on soft power through cultural ways: developing pluralism and multiculturalism, inculcating the culture of democracy and creating a more just economy. This cultural way could also be strengthened by empowering and facilitating the moderates through education, economic advocate, leadership exchanges and regional or international networking. 14. It also emerges in the present world order that religious diversity seems to discourage terrorism, while ethnic fractionalisation appears to raises domestic terrorism. On the other hand, poverty or lack of education does not seem to be directly linked to its incidence. 15. The clash we are witnessing around the world is not a clash of religion or a clash of civilisations, it is a clash between two oppositions, between two eras. It is a clash between a mentality that belongs to the middle ages and another mentality that belongs to the 21st century. It is a clash between civilisation and backwardness, between the civilised and the primitive, between barbarity and rationality. It is a clash between freedom and oppression, between democracy and dictatorship. It is a clash between human rights on one hand and the violation of these rights on the other hand. Bibliography Books 1. Bruce Hoffman. Inside Terrorism. Columbia University Press 1998. 2. Jeffrey Record.Bounding the Global War on Terrorism. December 1, 2003. 3. Alex P. Schmid, Albert J. Jongman, et al.,Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Authors, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, and Literature. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books 1988. 4. Steven Best, Anthony J. Nocella.Terrorists Or Freedom Fighters? Reflections on the Liberation of Animals. Lantern Books, 2004. 5. Juergensmeyer, Mark.Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence.University of California Press 2004. 6. Malik, S. K..The Quranic Concept of War. Himalayan Books 1986. Spencer, Robert.The Politically Incorrect Guide to Islam (And the Crusades). Regnery Publishing 2005, USA. 7. Esposito, John L..Unholy War: Terror in the Name of Islam. Oxford University Press 2003, USA. 8. Cook, Michael.The Koran: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press,2000. 9. Tore Bjorgo. Root Causes of terrorism, Myths, reality and ways forward. Routledge 2005. 10. Juan Cole. Engaging the Muslim World. Palgrave macmillan 2009. 11. Farish A. Noor, Yoginder Sikand martin van Bruinessen. The Madrasas in Asia, Political activism and transnational linkages.Armsterdam University press 2008. 12. Schwartz Stephen, The Two Faces of Islam The House of Saud from Tradition to Terror, Doubleday Random House, New York 2002. 13. Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, Harper San Francisco, New York 2003, 14. The Quran Research Papers 15. Interview with Dr. Bruce Hoffman. Religion and Terrorism. Religioscope 22 February 2002. https://www.religioscope.com/info/articles/003_Hoffman_terrorism.htm 16. Terrorism and Religion 2001 GT[emailprotected]/* */. https://www.dreamsmith.org/rants/terrorism.shtml 17. Early History of Terrorism,https://Terrorism-Research.com 18. UN Action against Terrorism. Collection of treaties and other relevant documentation on the United Nations website:,https://www.un.org/terrorism 19. Dear, Bruce. Why holy wars start and how to prevent them doing so again. The Times, United Kingdom, Januray 19, 2002. 20. Yehuda Bauer. Some Thoughts on Radical Islam. https://www1.yadvashem.org/about_holocaust/holocaust_antisemitism/Bauer_doc.pdf 21. M. Moniruzzaman, International Islamic University, Malaysia.Jihad and Terrorism An Alternative Explanation. Journal of Religion Society. The Kripke Center Volume 10 (2008). 22. Dr. Amritha Venkatraman Religious Basis for Islamic Terrorism: The Quran and Its Interpretations. Studies in Conflict Terrorism, Volume 30 Issue 3, Taylor and Francis Group, 2007. 23. Randall Price. Are We at War with Islam?.islam.pdf. 24. James W. Jones. Why does religion turn violent? A Psychoanalytic Exploration of Religious Terrorism. Jones_religion.pdf. 25. Matthew J. Morgan. The Origins of the New terrorism. Morgan.pdf. 26. Terrorisms new Structure. The Wall Street Journal online. August 16, 2008. 27. John Shattuck. Religion, Rights, and Terrorism. Shattuck.pdf. 28. Anne Speckhard. Sacred Terror Insights into the Psychology of Religiously Motivated Terrorism. Sacred_terror.pdf. 29. Laurence R. Iannaccone. Religious extremism: the good, the bad, and the deadly.rex.pdf. 30. Murat karagoz. Sptember 11: A New Type of terrorism. Perception_MuratKaragoz.pdf. 31. Justin A Rosenthel. Jigsaw jihadism. National Interest Jan-Feb 2007. https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_87/ai_n27119326/ 32. Bob Woodward., In Hijackers bag, a call to planning, prayer and death. The Washington Post September 28,2001.https://encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-460491.html 33. Shmuel Bar.The religious source of Islamic terrorism. Policy Review, June 2004. Shamuel Bar is the senior research fellow at the Institute for Policy and Strategy at the Interdisciplinary Centre Herzliya in Israel and a veteran of the Israeli intelligence community.https://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3438276.html 34. Mark Juergensmeeyer. Does Religion Cause Terrorism? National Policy Forum on terrorism, Security and Americas Purpose-Washington DC, Sep 6-7 2005. https://www.juergensmeyer.com/files/Does%20Relig%20Cause%20Terr.doc 35. Professor Robert Adams. The Changing Face of Terrorism. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) .https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/sept_11/changing_faces_01.shtml 36. Biggo, Nancy C. The Rationality of the use of Terrorism by Secular and Religious Groups, www.dissertations.com, 37. Speech given by Tony Blair to UN General Assembly on September 21, 1998 Britain and the Fight against International Terrorism, An FCO Network Feature, www.fco.org World Wide Web 38. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition_of_terrorism 39. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_terrorism 40. https://www.essay-911.com/samples/Religious.htm 41. https://blogs.omeriqbal.com/news 42. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Fundamentalism 43. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_terrorism 44. https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/11/world/main310852.shtml 45. https://www.terrorism-research.com/history/ 46. https://library.thinkquest.org/07aug/01419/EX.html 47. https://www.terrorism-research.com/history/recent.php [1] https://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2001/09/11/world/main310852.shtml [2] Justin A Rosenthel. Jigsaw jihadism. National Interest Jan-Feb 2007. https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_87/ai_n27119326/ [3] Bob Woodward., In Hijackers bag, a call to planning, prayer and death. The Washington Post September 28,2001.https://encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-460491.html [4] Shmuel Bar.The religious source of Islamic terrorism. Policy Review, June 2004. Shamuel Bar is the senior research fellow at the Institute for Policy and Strategy at the Interdisciplinary Centre Herzliya in Israel and a veteran of the Israeli intelligence community. https://www.hoover.org/publications/policyreview/3438276.html [5] Ibid [6] Mark Juergensmeeyer. Does Religion Cause Terrorism? National Policy Forum on terrorism, Security and Americas Purpose-Washington DC, September 6-7 2005. Mark Juergensmeeyer is a professor of sociology and religious studies and director of the Orfalea Center of Global and International Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is author or editor of twenty books, including Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. https://www.juergensmeyer.com/files/Does%20Relig%20Cause%20Terr.doc [7] Terrorism Research. History of Terroris. Terrorism-Researchhttps://www.terrorism-research.com/history/ (20 Nov 2009) [8] The Treaty of Westphalia ended the 30 year war. [9] John Shattuck.Religion, Rights, and Terrorism. Harvard Human Rights Journal. https://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss16/shattuck.shtml. History of terrorism. https://library.thinkquest.org/07aug/01419/EX.html [10] Terrorism in the 20th and 21st Century.https://www.terrorism-research.com/history/recent.php [11] Professor Robert Adams. The Changing Face of Terrorism. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/recent/sept_11/changing_faces_01.shtml. (Dec 5 2009) [12] Biggo, Nancy C. The Rationality of the use of Terrorism by Secular and Religious Groups, www.dissertations.com, p. 18. [13] Speech given by Tony Blair to UN General Assembly on September 21, 1998 Britain and the Fight against International Terrorism, An FCO Network Feature, www.fco.org, p. 2. [14] Criteria to Declare a country and organization as terrorist ,Unstarred Question, No 1982, Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs. [15] Security Council Foreign Ministers Discuss Counter-terrorism, US Department of State, International Information Programs, https://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/01111206.htm. [16] Universal Declaration of Human Rights, www.un.org. p. 1. [17] Britain and the Fight against International Terrorism, p.1 [18] Schwartz Stephen, The Two Faces of Islam The House of Saud from Tradition to Terror, Doubleday Random House, New York 2002, p. 250. [19] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, Harper San Francisco, New York 2003, p. 46 [20] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 41. [21] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 32. [22] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 70. [23] The author of the article The Rationality of the use of Terrorism by Secular and Religious Groups [24] Ruf Werner, Islam and the West- Judgments, Prejudices, Political Perspectives, Verlag GmbHCo.Kg, Munster:2002, p. 21. [25] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 127. [26] Kimball Charles, When Religion Becomes Evil, p. 72. [27] An early use of this phrase was inThe EconomistVol. 273:2 in 1848, and more recently Indian Council of World AffairsIndia Quarterly, Indian Council of World Affairs [etc.], 1945.p. 122. [28] For an excellent discussion and definition of the global Salafi jihad see Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004 [29] See Post, Jerrold, Sprinzak, Ehud and Denny, Laurita (2003) The terrorists in Their Own Words: Interviews with 35 Incarcerated Middle Eastern Terrorists. Terrorism and Political Violence, volume 15, number 1, pp. 171-184. [30] Speckhard, Anne Unpublished Belgian interviews Spring and Fall 2005. [31] For a further discussion of how Chechen terrorists take on the religious terrorist ideology see Anne Speckhard Khapta Ahkmedova (2006) The Making of a Martyr: Chechen Suicide Terrorism, Journal of Studies in Conflict and Terrorism Volume 29, Issue 5. [32] Ibid, also Speckhard, Anne unpublished Beslan interviews August 2005. [33] The Hadis (or Hadith) is the collection of biographic reports about the sayings, customs and doings of Mohammed and his companions; they also reflect on what Mohammed enjoined and tolerated in his presence or forbade.(https://answering-islam.org/Nehls/Ask/sunnah.html) [34] Translated by N.J. Dawood, The Koran, Penguin Group, England 1999, p. 357 (47:3). [35] Ahmad Khurshid, Islam ~ its meaning and message, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester: 1975, p. 37. [36] Lewis Bernard, The Crisis of Islam- Holy War and Unholy Terror, p. 31. [37] Sadar Ziauddin, Islam, Postmodernism and other Futures, Pluto Press, Virginia 2003, p. 64. [38] The refers to people who do not follow Islam and to those societies, states or communities in which the dominant population is not Muslim. [39] Internal Jihad is that which is declared by a Muslim on himself to improve his adherence to the Quranic revelations. [40] External Jihad declared by an individual against the Islamic community to attain Quranic justice. [41] Inter-communal Jihad that declared between communities to attain Quranic objectives. [42] Violence is more rarely advocated in the case of internal as compared to external Jihad. [43] Taher Mohamed, Encyclopedic Survey of Islamic Culture- Vol. 11, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi 1997, p. 25. [44] Refers to a method of Jihad which can be used for internal, external or inter-communal purposes [45] Husain Mir Zohar, Global Islamic Politics, Harper Collins College Publishers, New York 1995, p. 37-38. [46] The Qurran, p. 107 (6:151). [47] The Quran, p. 29, (2.912 and 2.913). [48] Mohammad Nazar, Commandments by God in the Quran, The Message Publications, New York 1991, p. 733 (8:25). [49] According to the Quran, Islam is Gods true and only religion. [50] The Quran, p. 29, (2.912 and 2.913). [51] Choudhry Goulam W, Pakistan Transition from Civilian to Military Rule, Scorpion Publishing, Essex 1998, p. 92. [52] Choudhry Goulam W, Pakistan Transition from Civilian to Military Rule, p. 93. [53] The Quran, p. 367 (51:17). [54] The Quran, p.43, (3:5). [55] Walzer, Micheal. Just and Unjust Wars. Basic Books Perseus Books Group, New York: 2000. [56] Justice A Rosenthal. Jigsaw jihadism. National interest, Jan 2007. https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/23771912/ [57] ibid. [58] Robert. M. Jenkins, The Islamic connection, Religious Fundamentalism and Terrorism.